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The Code applies to feed manufacturing and to the use of all feeds gastritis and gastroparesis diet 2mg doxazosin fast delivery, other than those taken while grazing free-range gastritis symptoms in cats purchase doxazosin 4mg without a prescription. The primary objective of the Code is to encourage adherence to good manufacturing practices during the production gastritis uptodate cheap 2mg doxazosin with mastercard, harvesting gastritis from not eating buy generic doxazosin 4mg, handling, storage, processing (however minimal) and distribution of feed for food-producing animals. These matters will be considered further in the following subchapter on international legal frameworks for biosafety. Biosafety Potential for increased output and novel livestock products has stimulated interest in the development of transgenic livestock. A number of environmental and health-related concerns have, however, been raised with regard to genetic modification. In 1999, the Codex Alimentarius Commission established an Ad Hoc Intergovernmental Task Force on Foods Derived from Biotechnology to consider the health and nutritional implications of such foods. In particular, the objectives of the Task Force are to develop standards, guidelines or recommendations, as appropriate, for foods derived from biotechnology or traits introduced into foods by biotechnology. This is to be done on the basis of scientific evidence, risk analysis and having regard, where appropriate, to other legitimate factors relevant to the health of consumers and the promotion of fair trade practices. Members requested the development of standards and guidelines relating to animal vaccines produced through biotechnology, animal health risks linked to cloning, the exclusion of unapproved animals and products from the livestock population, and genetically engineered animals. The increasing significance of international trade has also driven the establishment of international regimes to regulate other aspects of commerce. Moreover, a number of ongoing and emerging forces are likely to drive further developments in the field of international legislation. Intellectual property rights and issues of access and benefit sharing, for example, may well be issues of increasing significance in coming years; and transboundary livestock diseases are a constant concern. Agricultural biological diversity for food security: shaping international initiatives to help agriculture and the environment. This "market failure" arises as a result of the "public goods" nature of knowledge; the costs of research and development are borne by the innovator, but the benefits accrue to the wider society (Lesser, 2002). The holder of a trademark is given exclusive rights to use a name or symbol associated with a product. The goodwill that the holder has built up while providing the product under a given name cannot then be expropriated by others or dissipated through the supply of inferior products under the same name (Lesser, 2002). A relevant example would be Certified Angus Beef protected by federal trademark law in the United States of America. Similar to trademarks are rights to geographical appellations of origin, which indicate that a product was produced in a particular geographical area where the production conditions are associated with distinct characteristics. These rights are of considerable relevance to niche markets, and hence potentially to the utilization of local livestock breeds. Trade secrets relate to the protection from misappropriation of any commercially sensitive information (and materials) that the holder takes reasonable precautions to conceal. Crop breeders have for many years used this approach to protect the parent lines and related information used in the production of hybrid seed for sale, and similar approaches are adopted in the poultry and pig industries (Lesser, 2002). In the case of patents, the holder is given exclusive rights over the commercial use of an innovation for a set period of time, often 20 years, in the country in which the patent is granted. This competitive advantage serves to counteract the effects of the above-mentioned market failure. In order to obtain a patent, the innovation must be inventive or not obvious; and it must be novel, in the sense of not being previously known through public use or publication (Lesser, 2002). A patent can be obtained to cover, a product per se (in itself), a process, or a product derived through a process; it may be dependent on previous patents. The requirement for a description of the invention to accompany the application, in such a way that a person "skilled in the art" is able to reproduce it, promotes the dissemination of information and may stimulate research in related fields (ibid. While patents may serve to promote innovations, it must be recognized that once a new product has been developed, the existence of a patent inhibits competition and thereby reduces the availability of the product. The balance between the two effects, and hence the outcome in terms of the economic benefits to society as a whole, is a matter of complex interactions between the length and scope of the patent and the nature of demand for the product (Langinier and Moschini, 2002). Moreover, the propensity of patents to promote innovation has sometimes been challenged.
Exemplar institutional data policies should cover research data ownership gastritis symptoms itching doxazosin 4mg otc, stewardship chronic gastritis curable purchase 1 mg doxazosin free shipping, and expectations as well as provide clear definitions gastritis diet ìóëüòèêè purchase 4 mg doxazosin free shipping, identify access and ownership claims to the data gastritis supplements 1 mg doxazosin with visa, specify retention periods, and lay out the responsibilities of all data stakeholders (including what happens if a researcher leaves the institution). Due to local differences, the ideal policy contents will vary between institutions and countries. These policies feature clear, explicit, and thorough language about what researchers should and should not do with their data. Specifically, this policy defines the role of the university libraries under the extensive responsibilities section with a number of specific examples. The "Policy on Data Ownership, Retention, and Access" at the University of Massachusetts Amherst also provides detailed definitions and covers data ownership, custody, quality, retention, and access. The model policy is intended to be comprehensive, allowing institutions to select and adapt relevant sections as appropriate. The model includes suggested statements on the purpose of the policy, data ownership, stakeholders and their responsibilities, and potential related institutional policies. For example, universities have an interest in promoting and preserving the reputation of the institution and the researcher: where good data is known to be a product of the institution and its researchers, both entities can gain recognition for the data and research generated. Good policies may also prevent reputational damage when data is missing, lost, or found to be fraudulent. Another goal of an institutional data policy is to improve opportunities for commercialization, as controlling access to data and maintaining good data preservation and documentation are integral to patent applications. Finally, universities have a specific goal of data retention for educational reuse, as data is frequently shared between faculty and students in a "gift" culture that introduces students and early career researchers to the field. Journal Data Policies Journal data policies add further complexity to the data policy landscape. These policies align with some of the recent changes to funding agency policies by pushing for greater access to research data. While still not ubiquitous in scholarly publishing, there are increasing journal and publisher requirements for researchers to make the supporting data available alongside the published journal article. The actual journal requirements for data sharing fall on a spectrum from strict to loose. For journals with loose sharing expectations, it is often enough to simply provide access to the data when contacted rather than placing the data in a specific repository. The principal incentive is to increase the reproducibility of the articles these journals publish. Greater scrutiny of research data can prevent the publication of problematic research and ensure that any subsequent retractions are easier to identify and resolve, both of which improve the quality and reputation of a journal. Open-access journals also have an altruistic motivation to expand their open mission into the data realm. Navigating the Data Policy Landscape for Curation Libraries undertaking data curation must be aware of funding agency, institutional, and journal data policies as these policies can directly affect local curation practices. Part of this awareness requires the ability to navigate the variances that frequently exist between the policy types. Thankfully, there are also a few areas of policy agreement that can further strengthen curation efforts. With respect to policy agreement, both funder and institutional policies often include a requirement about data retention after the end of project. However, while funder and institutional data policies often include retention mandates, retention times can sometimes conflict. This creates confusion for researchers in how long they actually need to retain data and whose policy takes precedence. In practice, longer retention times are preferred, especially in light of a two recent retractions of six- and eight-year-old papers where the original data could not be located to address concerns about the research. In general, libraries should recommend that stated retention times be treated as minimums, with a preference for longer, but not indefinite, retention periods. A second area of overlap between institutional and funder policies is that responsibility for the data often falls to both the researcher and the university. In general, the institution is held responsible for the compliance of its researchers and has a financial interest in meeting these requirements.
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One day we were following our patas study group when several females and juveniles began giving high-pitched "nyow" alarm calls gastritis diet ðñò purchase doxazosin 4 mg without a prescription. Patas monkeys are chronic gastritis recipes trusted 1 mg doxazosin, after all eosinophilic gastritis symptoms trusted 2mg doxazosin, the fastest primate gastritis symptoms bleeding purchase doxazosin 2 mg with amex, capable of running 20 miles per hour for short distances. It did not even occur to me that they had sounded an alarm and then run away from something-until my advisor pointed to the lioness hidden in the grass at the base of a tree. I would spend two years at that same field site collecting data on anti-predator behavior of patas monkeys and vervets, two closely related species who occupy different habitats. These trees have little to no overlapping canopy, so climbing one to escape a lion in pursuit can result in a literal dead end. But they also venture into patas habitats, the short trees with canopies that do not overlap. I wanted to know: How would the structure of these habitats affect the responses of vervets and patas monkeys to alarm calls that signal the approach of a terrestrial predator like a lion? Not surprisingly, when vervets are near the river, they climb the tall trees to seek refuge from such predators. These "cheetahs of the primate world" are more likely to take off running (as I had seen them do that summer), even bypassing nearby trees. Their physical adaptations for speed, like their long legs, combined with the lack of arboreal escape routes, makes fleeing on the ground their best option. But what do vervets do when they are away from the river and the safety of their tall trees? Is their behavior "hard-wired" so that their response to an alarm call is the same, regardless of the habitat? Or do they assess key aspects of their habitat, like tree height and canopy cover, and alter their behavior? Although they cannot run as fast, when they hear an alarm call they run back toward the river, by-passing the short trees, just like the patas do (Enstam and Isbell 2002). The implication is clear: these monkeys, our close relatives, with their highly developed intelligence and ability to learn, do assess key features of their habitat and use this information to alter their behavior and maximize their chance of escape. Primate Ecology and Behavior 191 the branch of science that focuses on the study of primate behavior is called primatology, and people, like myself, who study primates (Figure 6. Primatologists come from many different disciplines and study primate behavior for different reasons. Biologists study primates as examples of evolutionary theories like natural selection or parental investment. Primate intelligence is of interest to psychologists who want to learn more about the underlying cognitive principles involved in deceptive or cooperative behavior and to linguists interested in the principles of communication and language. Ecologists studying conservation issues examine how primates are affected by deforestation, poaching, or illegal animal trade. Biological anthropologists, like myself, who study primates are interested in their social complexity and ecological and behavioral variation. Because both humans and most nonhuman primates live in groups, biological anthropologists study primates to better understand the evolution of social behavior and its costs and benefits. Because primates are our closest living relatives, we study them to gain insights into how our human ancestors may have behaved as well as to better understand our own behavior. They even play a role in determining whether a primate lives in a group or is solitary and lives alone. Primate Diets Diet may be the most important variable influencing variation in primate morphology, behavior, and ecology, and primate diets are highly varied. Some primatologists separate foraging, the act of finding and handling food, from feeding, the act of consuming food, while others combine these into one category. Because you learned about the dental and digestive adaptations experienced by frugivores (who feed primarily on fruit), folivores (whose diet consists mostly of leaves), and insectivores (who eat mainly insects) in Chapter 5, we will not discuss them here. Instead, we will focus on the relationship between diet and body size and the variation in food abundance (how much is available in a given area) and distribution (how it is spread out). Although all primates will eat insects if they come upon them, those species that rely most heavily on insects tend to be the smallest.
Further study revealed that people who carry the sickle cell allele are far less likely to experience a severe case of malaria gastritis symptoms in infants generic 2mg doxazosin visa. This would not be enough of a benefit to make the allele advantageous for the sickle cell homozygotes who face shortened life spans due to sickle cell anemia gastritis from diet pills doxazosin 4 mg. People who are heterozygous for sickle cell carry one normal allele gastritis hiv discount 4 mg doxazosin amex, which produces the normal gastritis biopsy doxazosin 4mg generic, round, red blood cells, and one sickle cell allele, which produces the sickle-shaped red blood cells. They produce enough of the round red blood cells to avoid the symptoms of sickle cell anemia, but they have enough sickle cells to provide protection from malaria. When the Plasmodium parasites infect an individual, they begin to multiply in the liver, but then must infect the red blood cells to complete their reproductive cycle. When the parasites enter sickle-type cells, the cells respond by taking on the sickle shape. This prevents the parasite from circulating through the bloodstream and completing its life cycle, greatly inhibiting the severity of the infection in the sickle cell heterozygotes compared to non-sickle-cell homozygotes. Forces of Evolution 129 Sexual Selection Sexual selection is an aspect of natural selection in which the selective pressure specifically affects reproductive success (the ability to successfully breed and raise offspring) rather than survival. Sometimes these sexually appealing traits even carry greater risks in terms of survival. A classic example of sexual selection involves the brightly colored feathers of the peacock. During mating season, peacocks will fan their colorful tails wide and strut in front of the peahens in a grand display. The peahens will carefully observe these displays and will elect to mate with the male that they find the most appealing. Many studies have found that peahens prefer the males with the fullest, most colorful tails. While these large, showy tails provide a reproductive advantage, they can be a real burden in terms of escaping predators. The bright colors and patterns as well as the large size of the peacock tail make it difficult to hide. Once predators spot them, peacocks also struggle to fly away, with the heavy tail trailing behind and weighing them down (Figure 4. Some researchers have argued that the increased risk is part of the appeal for the peahens: only an especially strong, alert, and healthy peacock would be able to avoid predators while sporting such a spectacular tail. One important factor is that, while the neurofibromas typically begin to appear during puberty, they usually emerge only a few at a time and may grow very slowly. Some researchers prefer to classify sexual selection separately, as a fifth force of evolution. Research has shown that subtle traits, such as the type of pheromones (hormonal odors related to immune system alleles) someone emits and how those are perceived by the immune system genotype of the "sniffer," may play crucial and subconscious roles in whether we find someone attractive or not (Chaix et al. In 2015, Gareth Bloomfield and colleagues reported on their genomic study of the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum (a. Strains of these amoebae have been grown in research laboratories for many decades and are useful in studying phagocytosis and micropinocytosis-the mechanisms that amoeboid single-celled organisms use to ingest food and liquid. For simplification of our examples in this chapter, our amoeba-like cells remained ocean dwellers. Wild Dictyostelium discoideum, however, live in soil and feed on soil bacteria by growing ruffles in their membranes that reach out to encapsulate the bacterial cell. Laboratory strains, however, are typically raised on liquid media (agar) in Petri dishes, which is not suitable for the wild-type amoebae. It was widely known that the laboratory strains must have developed mutations in one or more genes to allow them to ingest the larger nutrient particles in the agar and larger volumes of liquid, but the genes involved were not known. Bloomfield and colleagues performed genomic testing on both the wild and the laboratory strains of Dictyostelium discoideum. It originated in a common ancestor to humans and these amoebae and has been retained in both lineages ever since. For these amoebae, this may provide dietary flexibility that functions somewhat like an insurance policy for times when the food supply is limited. Dictyostelium discoideum are also interesting in that they typically reproduce asexually, but under certain conditions, one cell will convert into a "giant" cell, which encapsulates surrounding cells, transforming into one of three sexes. This cell will undergo meiosis, producing gametes that must combine with one of the other two sexes in order to produce viable offspring.
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